I-Search Paper: Reading Literacy in Bilingual First Graders
November 15, 2007
Deidra Darst
11/15/07
Introducing/Questioning
Prior to researching this topic for my CD315 project I knew a little about bilingualism in United States educational curricula. I knew about the various methods of instruction, how each is employed, and the postive and negative effects of each method. While I had previously researched the effectiveness and importance of bilingual education and educators, I did not know much about bilingual students. Furthermore, I knew very little about the development of reading literacy skills. In regard to my specific research question, “how can speech-language pathologists help facilitate reading skills in the bilingual first grade children,” I knew very little. I did not know much about the development of second languages in children, and did not understand the components of reading literacy.
The genesis of my research question was a trial-and-error process as well as a process of refining several different versions of my initial essential question. I began with a broader group of interest, culturally and linguistically different children. I wanted to learn how techonology could aid speech-language pathologists in improving this population’s literacy skills. I soon found that my focus was too broad and too narrow, all at the same time. I needed focus on a more specific group of persons (bilingual children), expand upon the means through which aid could be provided to these students (and include all possible strategies), and choose a particular aspect of literacy (reading literacy) in order to have a more researchable topic. My final essential question proved to be researchable, interesting, and relevant. My searching endeavors have returned a substantial amount of information regarding this population and their reading literacy skills. I find this topic interesting because I could possibly work with this population at some point in my future career. It is relevant to the practicing speech-language pathologists of today. With over five million non-native English speakers enrolled in our schools today, professionals need to be aware of this population’s academic needs.
My essential question is the basis of my research. I set out to find an answer to the following question: How can speech-language pathologists help facilitate the development of literacy skills necessary for reading in the second language of bilingual first grade children? The essential question can be broken down into three specific foundation questions. These three questions have guided the research process: What is bilingualism? What literacy skills are necessary for reading? How can speech-language pathologists help facilitate the development of such literacy skills?
Searching
The United States is a country comprised of individuals from a multitude of backgrounds. It has been estimated that 5.5 million students attending public schools in the United States are not native English speakers (Garcia, McCardle, & Nixon, 2007). Because the changing demographics of this country are expanding to include more and more linguistically different peoples, research must be conducted in order to understand how to best educate this population.
According to Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary, bilingualism is the ability to use two languages with equal proficiency. The first language is labeled Language 1 (L1). L1 is the first and dominate language of the individual. The second language is labeled Language 2 (L2). School systems in the United States are concerned about those students whose second language is English; these students have been defined as English Language Learners (ELLs) (Reyes, 2006). ELL students have mastered their first language and are in the process of developing English. The literature about this population circulates around a predominate question: when should academic instruction begin in the second language? Should second language instruction take precedence in order to facilitate L2 development? Should academic instruction be equally shared between the two languages?
The following paper will discuss bilingual children’s literacy skills. All children must develop prereading skills at a young age. This includes listening to stories read by parents, drawing letters and numbers, and sharing language experiences with peers and adults. Learning how to hold a book and pretending to read also constitute preliteracy skills (Reyes, 2006). Direct instruction in regard to reading skills takes place in kindergarten and first grade. How are these skills taught to monolingual students? How are bilingual students taught to read in their second language? When should reading skills in the second language be comparable to first language reading skills? How is this accomplished? Furthermore, how can speech-language pathologists help facilitate reading literacy skills in the second language?
Learning to read is a process that requires time and practice. The website Time 4 Learning states that six component parts make up reading literacy: print concepts, phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension (Edelson, 2007). These component parts must be developed sequentially and completely in order for young readers to become successful readers (Calhoon, Al Otaiba, Cihak, King, & Avalos, 2007). Each component will be discussed as it relates to the development of reading literacy skills.
Learning to read is a journey that begins with the knowledge of print concepts. Students must understand that graphic representations of letters exist, and that alphabetic letters can be combined to form words (Edelson, 2007). Lenters (2004) writes that alphabetic understanding is key for both monolingual and bilingual students; the knowledge of print concepts is the cornerstone of developing reading skills.
Developing phonemic awareness is a vital milestone for the young reader. “Wagner and Torgesen (1987) defined phonological awareness as a set of linguistic and metalinguistic skills involving sensitivity to the sound structure of spoken words” (Paez & Rinaldi, 2006). Simply put, phonological awareness entails connecting speech sounds to the graphic alphabetic representation. Students who are capable of distinguishing minimal pairs and naming words beginning with specified letters are likely to succeed in beginning reading tasks (Hammer & Miccio, 2006). Phonics, which relates to phonemic awareness, teaches students how to connect alphabetic letters to sounds received auditorily. The phonics approach is often employed within today’s school systems; children are taught the sounds of each letter and learn to combine the sounds to form words.
Fluency, as defined by the National Institute for Literacy (NIFL), is “the ability to read a text accurately and quickly” (Ambruster, 2001). Increasing children’s vocabularies aids in the development of reading literacy skills such as fluency. The more words he or she knows, the easier reading becomes. Research studies have indicated that 95% word recognition and higher is necessary for children to read independently, hence encouraging the theory that vocabulary building is essential for young readers (2004).
Comprehension is key for the young reader. Young readers must learn how to find meaning in the written word. It is not enough to merely read the words on a page; young readers must learn to extract meaning and form interpretations. Successful readers who comprehend the written word can use context clues to postulate where the story is likely to go from a given point (Edelson, 2007).
Learning to read is an arduous task, requiring direct instruction, practice, personal development, and the development of the aforementioned abilities. This task is duplicated for children trying to develop reading skills in not one, but two different languages. ELL students who are learning to read in their second language must overcome obstacles specifically related to second language development. Lenters (2004) compiled information from various sources, summarizing “unique challenges” (2004) faced by this population: sound/symbol dissimilarity or interference, oral vocabulary constraints, limitations due to background knowledge, and difficulties with text structure (Figure 1, 2004). It has also been postulated that bilingual students’ development of reading skills suffers due to a lack of academic language (Calhoon, Al Otaiba, Cihak, King, & Avalos, 2007). Researchers are currently studying the connection between the first and second languages; can development within the first language facilitate improvement within the second language?
ELL students who first learn to read in their native language experience sound/symbol dissimilarity when they begin to read in their second language. Consider phonemic awareness and phonics instruction taking place in the first language. The Spanish-speaking child associates the letter “a” with the sound /a/. However, when this same child attempts to learn the English sound for the letter “a,” his or her previous knowledge of this letter interferes. The English “a” can take on various oral production sounds: /a/, /æ/, or /e/.
The young ELL student often lacks a substantial oral English vocabulary. Because they are in the process of developing their second language, they are still learning basic vocabulary words. Bilingual students’ English vocabulary scores in kindergarten have been shown to directly correlate to their English word reading abilities during first grade (Paez & Rinaldi, 2006). If the child’s oral proficiency skills are undeveloped, educators cannot expect his or her reading skills to develop beyond their oral capacity.
This populations also suffers from limitations due to background knowledge. The speech and language skills they possess are related to their native language, and their background knowledge in the English language is often insufficient to support their developing L2 reading skills.
Difficulties with text structure is a common issue when bilingual children begin to read in their second language. Reyes (2006) completed several case studies in which she found text structure differences between the two languages to have a great impact on the child’s reading abilities. Reyes’ studies determined that “specific orthographic information” (2006) must be a focus of bilingual children. For instance, these children must understand when and how to interpret different graphical markings within texts. While English and Spanish use a similar alphabet they are not identical; Spanish words often include accent marks (`) and tildes (~). While English text reads from left-to-right, some languages such as Chinese and Hebrew read top-to-bottom and right-to-left, respectively.
Due to a lack of academic language, learning to read is a great challenge. This particular hindrance relates to this populations’ limited English vocabulary. How can these children be expected to read and understand words that they have never been exposed to? Even long-time readers need some background knowledge about a topic in order to extract meaning from texts. Calhoon and colleagues (2007) stated that this population of students often engages in less structured academic conversation and engages in less personal practice. English Language Learners generally only partake in academic discussions within the classroom and not with peers or family members.
A correlation has been found between the native language and the second language of young children. Cummins’ (2003) research in this area has provided useful information for educators. He found that the more highly developed the native language, the more promising is the development of the second language. Numerous studies have found that cross-language transfer occurs for phonological processes and word identification (Swanson, Saez, & Gerber, 2006). In the study conducted by Paez and Rinaldi (2006) that highlighted the connection between English vocabulary skills in kindergarten and English reading skills in first grade, a connection was also found between Spanish reading abilities and English reading abilities. They found that the higher the child’s Spanish reading skills in kindergarten, the higher his or her English reading skills are likely to be in first grade (Paez & Rinaldi, 2006).
Concluding/Answering
My research returned much information regarding reading literacy development in the second language of bilingual first grade students. ELL students face numerous hardships throughout the course of their academic careers. Learning to read is but one facet of their academic endeavors. With the ever-growing field of speech-language pathology, literacy skills (particularly reading skills) have become part of the pathologists’ scope of practice. Speech-language pathologists can help facilitate reading literacy skills in bilingual first graders in numerous ways.
Speech-language pathologists should play a vital role in early intervention and prevention. Because this population is at risk for academic difficulties due to their linguistic differences, speech-language pathologists should pay special attention to these children. Early intervention projects such as Birth to Three Programs can provide assistance to bilingual children. The sooner fundamental skills for reading have been addressed, the better chance these children have to succeed in reading.
Basic reading skills should be a central focus when working with this population. Print concepts, phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension form the foundation for successful reading abilities. Phonemic awareness and phonics are essential to the development of print concepts, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension. Bilingual children must first distinguish speech sounds from one another before they can begin to manipulate the sounds to form meaning from visual stimuli required for reading. English language learners must be introduced to the English alphabet during the pre-literacy stage. Their vocabulary skills should be targeted and worked on diligently. With the development of these skills, fluency and comprehension tasks can be implemented. Practice, both personal and guided, is a vital means through which this population can improve their readings skills in their second language. Speech-language pathologists can provide chances for learning oppotunities.
English Language Learners must overcome certain obstacles that are directly linked to their bilingualism. Speech-language pathologists should target these areas in order to facilitate development in L2 reading skills. It would be beneficial to the student if the clinician was also bilingual, or at least had some knowledge of the native language. Speech-language pathologists can help make a connection between the child’s native language and his or her second language. Forming connections bridges the gaps between the familiar and the unknown, which can improve abilities in the second language.
The correlation found between native language development and second language development is too significant to ignore. When contemplating how to facilitate L2 reading skills in bilingual first graders, speech-language pathologists should encourage L1 development. Crossover learning has been noted; hence gaining knowledge in the native language will likely cause progression in the second language.
Nearly every resource that I utilized to complete this project stated the need for more research into young bilingual readers’ abilities and hardships. Research and studies in this area will likely return information that will aid professionals in all fields; the knowledge gained from such studies will provide insight into the world of the bilingual first grader. The future is bright for English Language Learners as long as professionals continue to learn about their situations and strive to provide assistance.
Draft 1: I-Search Paper
November 4, 2007
Deidra Darst
11/4/07
Introducing/Questioning
Prior to researching this topic for my CD315 project I knew a little about bilingualism in United States educational curricula. I knew about the various methods of instruction, how each is employed, and the postive and negative effects of each method. While I had previously researched the effectiveness and importance of bilingual education and educators, I did not know much about bilingual students. Furthermore, I knew very little about the development of reading literacy skills. In regard to my specific research question, “how can speech-language pathologists help facilitate reading skills in the bilingual first grade children,” I knew very little. I did not know much about the development of second languages in children, and did not understand the components of reading literacy.
The genesis of my research question was a trial-and-error process as well as a process of refining several different versions of my initial essential question. I began with a broader group of interest, culturally and linguistically different children. I wanted to learn how techonology could aid speech-language pathologists in improving this population’s literacy skills. I soon found that my focus was too broad and too narrow, all at the same time. I needed to focus on a more specific group of persons (bilingual children), expand upon the means through which aid could be provided to these students (and include all possible strategies), and choose a particular aspect of literacy (reading literacy) in order to have a more researchable topic. My final essential question proved to be researchable, interesting, and relevant. My searching endeavors have returned a substantial amount of information regarding this population and their reading literacy skills. I find this topic interesting because I could possibly work with this population at some point in my future career. It is relevant to the practicing speech-language pathologists of today. With over five million non-native English speakers enrolled in our schools today, professionals need to be aware of this population’s academic needs.
My essential question is the basis of my research. I set out to find an answer to the following question: How can speech-language pathologists help facilitate the development of literacy skills necessary for reading in the second language of bilingual first grade children? The essential question can be broken down into three specific foundation questions. These three questions have guided the research process: What is bilingualism? What literacy skills are necessary for reading? How can speech-language pathologists help facilitate the development of such literacy skills?
Searching
The United States is a country comprised of individuals from a multitude of backgrounds. It has been estimated that 5.5 million students attending public schools in the United States are not native English speakers (Garcia, McCardle, & Nixon, 2007). Because the changing demographics of this country are expanding to include more and more linguistically different peoples, research must be conducted in order to understand how to best educate this population.
According to the Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary, bilingualism is the ability to use two languages with equal proficiency. The first language is labeled Language 1, or L1. L1 is the first and dominate language of the individual. The second language is labeled Language 2, or L2. School systems in the United States are concerened about those students whose second language is English; these students have been defined as English Language Learners (ELLs). ELL students have mastered their first language and are in the process of developing English. The literature about this population circulates around a predominate question: when should instruction in the second language begin? Should second language instruction take precedence in order to facilitate L2 development? Should academic instruction be equally shared between the two languages? Specifically, when should reading skills in the second language be comparable to first language reading skills?
Learning to read is a process that requires time and practice. The website Time 4 Learning states that six component parts make up reading literacy: print concepts, phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension (Edelson, 2007). These component parts must be developed sequentially and completely in order for young readers to be successful readers (2007). I will discuss each component as it relates to the development of reading literacy skills.
Learning to read is a journey that begins with the knowledge of print concepts. Students must understand that graphic representations of letter exist, and that alphabetic letter can be combined to form words (2007). Lenters (2004) writes that young readers need to understand that alphabetic understanding is key for both monolingual and bilingual students. Phonemic awareness is a vital milestone for the young reader. “Wagner and Torgesen (1987) defined phonological awareness as a set of linguistic and metalinguistic skills involving sensitivity to the sound structure of spoken words” (Paez & Rinaldi, 2006). Phonics, which relates to phonemic awareness, teaches students how to connect alphabetic letters to sounds received auditorily. Fluency, as defined by the National Institute for Literacy (NIFL), is “the ability to read a text accurately and quickly” (2007). Increasing children’s vocabularies aids in the development of reading literacy skills. The more words he or she knows, the easier reading becomes. Comprehension is key for the young reader. Young readers must learn how to find meaning in the written word.
Learning to read is an arduous task, requiring direct instruction, practice, personal development, and requires the development of several components relating to reading. This task is duplicated for children trying to develop reading skills in not one, but two different languages. ELL students who are learning to read in their second language must overcome obstacles specifically related to second language development. Lenters (2004) combiled information from various sources, summarizing “unique challenges” (2004) face by this population: sound/symbol dissimilarity or interference, oral vocabulary constraints, limitations due to background knowledge, and difficulties with text structure (Figure 1, 2004). It has also been postulated that bilingual students reading development suffers due to a lack in academic language (Calhoon, Al Otaiba, Cihak, King, & Avalos, 2007).
Concluding/Answering
My research returned much information regarding reading literacy development in the second language of bilingual first grade students. ELL students face numerous hardships throughout the course of their academic careers. Learning to read is but one facet of their academic endeavors. Speech-language pathologists can help facilitate reading literacy skills in bilingual first graders. Vocabulary building procedures can be implemented in order to enhance the students’ overall second language abilities, which in turn facilitates reading skills. Speech-language pathologists should also encourage development of the first language. Because of known crossover between the first and second languages, learning in the first language often aids in the development of the second language. The SLP can focus on phonological awareness tasks with bilingual children. As a foundational necessity of reading literacy, this would help facilitate reading skills.
References
Armbruster, B.B., & Osborn, F.L.J. (2001). Put reading first: The research building blocks for teaching children to read: Kindergarten through grade 3. Put Reading First: The Research Building Blocks for Teaching Children to Read. Retrieved November 4, 2007, from http://www.nifl.gov/partnershipforreading/publications/reading_first1.html.
Calhoon, M.B., Al Otaiba, S., Cihak, D., King, A., & Avalos, A. (2007, Summer). Effects of a peer-mediated program on reading skill acquisition for two-way bilingual first-grade classrooms. Learning Disability Quaterly, 30, 169-184).
Edelson, J. (n.d.). Time 4 learning. Retrieved November 3, 2007, from http://www.time4learning.com/learning-to-read.shtml.
Garcia, G.N., McCardle, P., & Nixon, S.M. (2007, July). Development of English Literacy in Spanish-speaking children: Transforming research into practice. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 38, 213-215.
Hammer, C.S., & Miccio, A.W. (2006) Early language and reading development of bilingual preschoolers from low-income families. Topics in Language Disorders, 26, 322-337.
Lenters, K. (2004, December). No half measures: Reading instruction for young second-language learners. The Reading Teacher, 54, 328-336.
Paez, M., & Rinaldi, C. (2006). Predicting English word readhing skills for Spanish-speaking students in first grade. Topics in Language Disorders, 26, 338-350.
Reyes, I. (2006). Exploring connections between emergent biliteracy and bilingualism. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy, 6, 267-292.
Swanson, H.L., Saez, L., & Gerber, M. (2006). Growth in literacy and cognition in bilingual children at risk or not at risk fore reading disabilities. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 247-264.
